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Abstract Despite a lack of modern large earthquakes on shallowly dipping normal faults, Holocene Mw > 7 low-angle normal fault (LANF; dip<30°) ruptures are preserved paleoseismically and inferred from historical earthquake and tsunami accounts. Even in well-recorded megathrust earthquakes, the effects of non-linear off-fault plasticity and dynamically reactivated splay faults on shallow deformation and surface displacements, and thus hazard, remain elusive.
1. Introduction Multiple scales, multi-physics interactions and nonlinearities govern earthquake source processes, rendering the understanding of how faults slip a grand challenge of seismology [1,2]. Over the last decades, earthquake rupture dynamics have been commonly modelled as a sudden displacement discontinuity across a simplified (potentially heterogeneous) surface of zero thickness in the framework of elastodynamics [3].
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