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Heat stress is an increasingly critical challenge for modern dairy production, particularly in pasture‑based systems where cows are directly exposed to solar radiation, humidity, wind, and high temperatures. This review synthesises the current evidence on environmental thermal indices, physiological responses, behavioural adapta‑tions, and sensor‑based technologies relevant to heat stress assessment in grazing dairy cattle.
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All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess.
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