1 Introduction Leopards (Panthera pardus) occupy diverse habitats across Africa and Asia, but are listed as vulnerable, with some populations decreasing (1). These iconic species play a role in terrestrial ecosystem functions, biodiversity maintenance, ecotourism industries, and cultural rituals in some South African societies (2, 3). However, apex predators including leopards are threatened by ecological disturbances, climate change, and infectious diseases (4, 5).
