1. Introduction The wood adhesive market is estimated to be worth over $6 billion by 2025 [,]. Despite the huge market, synthetic adhesives constitute a greater proportion of adhesives due to their superior adhesive performance and low cost []. Yet, historically, glues, resins, and composite binders were made using plant- and animal-based proteins until the mid-1900s when petroleum-based products, mainly formaldehyde, urea, and phenolics, became the mainstay feedstocks for industrial adhesives [].
