Although often co-occurring and related processes, the loss of apex predators and the exploitation of wildlife are often considered independently in their effects on ecological communities. The loss of top carnivores (from multiple stressors, including overexploitation) can elicit several outcomes, including diminished top-down regulation of herbivores, mesopredator release and the associated destabilization of communities (Estes et al., 2011; Prugh et al., 2009; Ripple et al., 2014).
