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1 Introduction Phthalates are a class of manmade compounds used in the manufacturing industry as solvents or added as plasticizers, mainly polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or other polymers, to confer flexibility and softness (1, 2). Phthalates are alkyl or dialkyl esters of phthalic acid, and their functional groups can be linear, branched, or circular (3). Depending on their size, phthalates are classified into low and high molecular weights (MW) (4, 5).
Abstract Graves’ disease (GD) is an autoimmune disease that primarily affects the thyroid gland. It is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism and occurs at all ages but especially in women of reproductive age. Graves’ hyperthyroidism is caused by autoantibodies to the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor (TSHR) that act as agonists and induce excessive thyroid hormone secretion, releasing the thyroid gland from pituitary control.
Graves’ disease (GD) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by hyperthyroidism and the presence of autoantibodies against the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor (TSHR), which are classified as stimulatory, blocking, or neutral and which bind to different receptor epitopes. Binding of TSH to the TSHR, a member of the GPCR superfamily, leads to the activation of G proteins and, in response to receptor phosphorylation, the activation of ?-arrestin–dependent signaling.
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