1 INTRODUCTION Terrestrial ecosystems worldwide face unprecedented degradation from anthropogenic pressures, including deforestation, agricultural expansion and climate change (Guo et al., 2025; Wang et al., 2025). Correspondingly, secondary succession (i.e. the natural or anthropogenic recovery of vegetation on disturbed lands) has emerged as a critical ecological strategy for restoring biodiversity, soil fertility and ecosystem services (Chai et al., 2019; Shi et al., 2021).