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Abstract Clostridium botulinum causes the disease botulism, and nontoxigenic Clostridium sporogenes is closely related to group I C. botulinum. Despite its pathogenicity, C. botulinum remains poorly characterized. Genetic manipulation is critical for understanding bacterial physiology and disease. We compared the conjugal transformation efficiencies of seven strains, including group I C. botulinum (strains 62A, 7I03-H, Okra, Osaka05, 111) and C.
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