Andrew Barnas

1 INTRODUCTION Landscape alteration is driving global biodiversity losses (Dirzo et al., 2014), including range contractions of large mammal species (Laliberte & Ripple, 2004; Shackelford et al., 2018). Mechanisms include habitat loss, altered landscape composition (the relative amounts of habitat and/or development) and habitat fragmentation, which modifies landscape configuration (the spatial arrangement or patterning of habitat and/or development).

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) range expansion into boreal forests facilitates wolf (Canis lupus) population growth in many parts of Canada and is associated with caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) declines (Latham et al., 2011). Several works across Canada have demonstrated anthropogenic landscape change subsidizes forage available to white-tailed deer (Darlington et al., 2022; Fisher et al., 2020). However, recently Dickie et al.

1 INTRODUCTION In North America, several apex predator species are currently recovering and recolonizing parts of their former ranges after decades of persecution, overexploitation, and habitat alteration (Moss et al. 2016a; Cimatti et al., 2021; Engebretsen et al., 2021; Gantchoff et al., 2021; Pratzer et al., 2023).