Buai Shi

1. Introduction Click to copy section linkSection link copied! Centralized urban sanitation systems represent one of the most significant engineering achievements of the 20th century, effectively preventing disease transmission and extending the life expectancy. (1) These conventional systems─relying heavily on extensive underground pipe networks─require large-scale infrastructure and substantial upfront capital investment, (2−4) and their global expansion has slowed.

When location-specific values for 77 countries ( Figure S16 ) are applied to the general scenario, both HRTs display a wide performance range, largely influenced by the local labor wage, unit CI of grid electricity, price level ratio, and household size ( Figure 5 A). For the PMD configuration, the daily per-capita cost ranges widely from 0.477 to 8.64 USD·cap –1 ·day –1 , with a left-skewed median of 1.54 USD·cap –1 ·day –1 .