Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is the sixth most common malignancy worldwide, accounting for approximately 890,000 new cases and 450,000 deaths annually (Johnson et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2023a). HNSCC predominantly affects four mucosal surfaces, namely, oral cavity, sinus cavity, pharynx, and larynx, and is strongly associated with smoking, alcohol consumption, and HPV infection. Epstein–Barr virus is closely linked to nasopharyngeal carcinoma (Marur & Forastiere, 2016).
