Choon-Hian Goh

Abstract Prostate cancer is considered the third most diagnosed malignancy worldwide, and early diagnosis is crucial for effective treatment and improved patient outcomes. In clinical laboratories, specific antigen detection (PSA) testing within gray zone range of 2–4 ng mL⁻1 remains challenging and typically relies on automated immunoassay analyzer, which are costly and require access to specialized laboratory facilities.

1 Introduction Essential hypertension affects over 1.2 billion people worldwide and remains a leading contributor to cardiovascular morbidity and mortality [1, 2]. In addition to chronically elevated blood pressure (BP), hypertension is characterized by autonomic imbalance and vascular stiffening, both of which contribute to target organ damage and adverse cardiovascular outcomes [3, 4].

1 INTRODUCTION Clinicians typically rely on intermittent sphygmomanometer readings to identify dysregulated postural blood pressure, observing sporadic changes when an individual moves from a seated or supine position to standing. However, the current consensus for diagnosing initial orthostatic hypotension necessitates the use of continuous measurement because it requires blood pressure to be captured within 15 s of standing upright.