Daguo Wang

Get full access to this article View all available purchase options and get full access to this article. Data Availability Statement Some or all data, models, or code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Acknowledgments The study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42171108) and the Sichuan Science and Technology Program (2024NSFSC2007 and 2025YFHZ0273). References Ambaye, T. G., M. Vaccari, E. D.

1. Introduction With the rapid development of China’s economy and society, tunnel excavation, oil and gas development, coal mining, and other underground space development projects are also developing rapidly. The design of tunnels in cold regions contributes greatly to the feasibility and sustainability of highways, which is an inevitable requirement for the development of major national infrastructure.