Emine Şuranur Ayaz

Abstract Accurate temperature regulation in nonlinear continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTRs) remains a challenging task due to strong nonlinearities and operating-point sensitivity. Although numerous proportional-integral-derivative (PID) tuning approaches have been proposed, most existing studies primarily focus on nominal operating conditions, often resulting in degraded performance under varying process dynamics.

1 Introduction Traumatic dental injuries are a common oral health condition in childhood and represent a significant global public health problem, affecting approximately 15%–23% of individuals in both primary and permanent dentitions while negatively influencing children's quality of life [1]. Appropriate and timely intervention is critical for the prognosis of traumatized teeth.