Hideitsu Hino

1 INTRODUCTION Weather and climate systems are inherently chaotic dynamical systems. Predictions for the future behaviour of these systems are inevitably influenced by uncertainties arising from factors such as initial conditions, discretisation in space and time, model physics, and complex nonlinear interactions and feedback (Leutbecher et al., 2017; Palmer, 2019; Palmer et al., 2005; Slingo & Palmer, 2011). A widely used method to assess the uncertainty of predictions is the ensemble prediction.

1 INTRODUCTION The heterogeneity of surface conditions creates a characteristic circulation by generating horizontal temperature differences; sea–land breezes, lake–land breezes, mountain–valley winds, and urban heat island circulation (UHIC) are good examples. These phenomena have been studied extensively using various approaches and are categorized as having horizontal convection. For example, the spatial scale of sea–land breezes is several tens to hundreds of kilometers (Simpson et al., 1977).