Jifeng Qi

1 Introduction Subtropical mode water (STMW) is a distinctive water mass characterized by its vertically uniform physical properties, including temperature, salinity, and density. Located between the seasonal and permanent pycnoclines, the STMW spans vast horizontal areas (e.g., Hanawa & Talley, 2001). It forms in the deep mixed layer, carrying signatures of wintertime ocean-atmosphere interactions into the ocean interior.

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