Jinfang Yin

Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Data Availability Statement The datasets used in this study are publicly available. The satellite-based precipitation products, including CHIRPS V2.0, CMORPH BLD, PERSIANN CDR, TMPA 3B42v7, and MSWEP V2.0, can be obtained from their respective official data portals. The CN05.1 gridded precipitation and temperature dataset is publicly available from the China Meteorological Administration.

1 INTRODUCTION Short-term extreme rainfall causes flash floods (Georgakakos, 1986), which pose serious threats to the safety of lives and properties (Ashley & Ashley, 2008; Nielsen & Schumacher, 2020b; Špitalar et al., 2014; Terti et al., 2017).

1 INTRODUCTION In the past decade, extreme hourly rainfall (EHR) exceeding 100 mm was occasionally observed (e.g., Luo et al., 2016; Nielsen & Schumacher, 2020; Wang & Tang, 2020; Xia & Zhang, 2019; Yin et al., 2022a). One unique characteristic of such extreme short-term rainfall events is that rainfall tends to be concentrated in a small area within a convective storm (Wang et al., 2021; Yin et al., 2020; Zipser & Liu, 2021).