As one of the malignancies with the highest incidence and mortality rates globally, COAD presents significant challenges in prevention and treatment, particularly in metastatic and advanced stages (Bray et al., 2024; Siegel, Giaquinto & Jemal, 2024). Although recent advancements in targeted therapies and immunotherapy have provided new treatment options for some patients, the overall efficacy of these approaches remains limited (Cervantes et al., 2023; Ganesh et al., 2019).
