Kim Bard

Abstract Exact facial replications, where individuals match the same facial variant type (e.g., Duchenne smiles) of others, play a central role in everyday social interactions of humans. Such replications help to improve an understanding of others by allowing individuals to be emotionally more in tune with them and/or to predict their behaviours.

1. Introduction Shared intentionality is often used to describe a uniquely human capacity for collaboration (Kaufmann, 2012; Engelmann and Tomasello, 2017; Tomasello, 2020). However, shared intentions are also used to describe even the most trivial instances of human cooperation.

This chapter is concerned with describing parenting behavior in primates. It addresses conceptual and practical issues associated with parenting in nonhuman primates and with maternal competence in chimpanzees. Chimpanzees are used as the basis for comparison with other primate species. They are our closest evolutionary relatives, sharing over 90% similarity in genetic material, and provide important information relevant to human behavior.