Pui-Ying Leong

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) has long been regarded as the prototype of complex autoimmune diseases, characterized by protean manifestations and an unpredictable course. Over recent decades, improved survival has shifted the focus of SLE management from preventing mortality alone to achieving sustained disease control while minimizing long-term treatment-related harm.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by inflammation of the synovium, ultimately leading to joint damage and deformities. This disease typically manifests as bilateral symmetric polyarticular arthritis in small joints of the hands and feet. In 2020, approximately 17.6 million people globally had RA, with an age-standardized prevalence rate of 208.8 cases per 100 000 population, marking a 14.1% increase since 1990 [1].

1 Introduction Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori ) is a bacterium that commonly infects the human stomach, causing various gastrointestinal diseases, including gastritis, peptic ulcers, and gastric cancer. Despite often being asymptomatic, its potential role in immune-mediated diseases has garnered significant attention. Immune-mediated diseases arise from abnormal immune responses targeting the body's own tissues, leading to chronic inflammation and damage.