Shiying Ren

1 Introduction Global plastic production reached 430.9 million tons in 2024, yet only about 14% is effectively recycled, leading to the pervasive accumulation of microplastics (MPs) in aquatic and terrestrial environments [1, 2]. These MPs, defined as having a size smaller than 5 mm, can accumulate in food chains, concentrate toxic pollutants, and impose physical and chemical hazards to organisms [3].