Svetla Sofkova-Bobcheva

1 INTRODUCTION Predators manage prey populations not only through direct consumption but also via non-consumptive effects (NCEs), where the perception of predation risk alters prey behavior, physiology, and life-history strategies.1-4 Such risk-induced responses can substantially suppress prey development and reproduction, often reducing population performance to an extent comparable to or even exceeding that caused by direct predation.2, 5-8 In agricultural systems, NCEs are increasingly...

1 Introduction Predation is a fundamental force driving animal evolution (Darwin 1871), and how animals manage predation risk is one of the most studied topics in behavioral ecology. For many species, vulnerability to predation varies between life stages, with early or juvenile life stages typically at higher risk due to their smaller size, lack of antipredator experience, and undeveloped physical or behavioral defenses (Lingle et al. 2008; Choh et al. 2012; Giachetti et al. 2022; Pringle et al.

1. Introduction Self-defence against biotic stressors such as bacteria, fungi and animals is crucial for the survival of all biological organisms, including plants. However, being sessile, plants cannot avoid these stressors via locomotion. Consequently, plants have evolved with an intricate defence system that extends beyond the plants’ physical barriers, equipping every plant cell with the ability to perform complex immune activities to execute self-defence.