Yifu Ge

1. Introduction Since the Industrial Revolution, human activities have markedly elevated carbon dioxide emissions due to extensive fossil fuel consumption and deforestation. Global energy-related CO2 emissions reached an all-time high of 37.4 Gt in 2023, representing an increase of 410 million tons from 2022 and about three times the level recorded in 1965 [1].

1. Introduction A growing body of evidence suggests that built environment characteristics influence active transportation choices by humans in both frequency and direction [1,2,3,4,5]. Among active transportation modes, walking is most common in highly urbanized environments with high densities, high complexity, and highly mixed land uses [6,7].