Zhongxiao Sun

1 Introduction Climate change and biodiversity loss are deeply intertwined, sharing common drivers that can amplify one another (Mori 2020). Substantial anthropogenic land impacts have driven climate change, with land-use change alone accounting for over 14% of total carbon emissions between 2009 and 2019 (Allan et al. 2017; Friedlingstein et al. 2020). Land use has also been the main driver of terrestrial biodiversity decline (Bongaarts 2019; Newbold et al. 2016).

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For terrestrial species, land use and land use change are the most important pressures that lead to species loss, (1−3) with on average a 13.6% reduction in species richness due to land use (4) and wilderness areas being continuously lost. (5) The main reason is that habitat area gets lost, fragmented, and degraded.