Aiken Karabassova

Abstract Background: Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is a cell-associated retrovirus that remains endemic in many cattle-producing countries. In the absence of effective vaccination, BLV control relies on sustained surveillance and accurate interpretation of serological and molecular diagnostic data. However, the systematic integration of multiple diagnostic layers with spatial analysis at the national level remains limited in endemic settings.

1 Introduction Bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BoHV-1), the etiological agent of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) and infectious pustular vulvovaginitis (IPV), remains a pathogen of considerable veterinary and economic concern worldwide. The virus, belonging to the genus Varicellovirus within the subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae (family Herpesviridae), causes respiratory, reproductive, and neonatal disease in cattle, resulting in significant production and trade losses (1).