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1Department of Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 2Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Information Technology, Applied Science Private University, Amman, Jordan 3Department of Computer Science, The World Islamic Sciences and Education University, Amman, Jordan 4School of Business, Monash University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia DOI 10.7717/peerj-cs.4021 Academic Editor Ankit Vishnoi Subject Areas...

A silent killer, air pollution is an invisible but constant threat that affects millions of people every day without their awareness. According to the World Health Organization (2025) (WHO), 99% of the world’s population breathes polluted air that exceeds WHO guideline limits. Middle-income countries are the most affected by this situation. Türkiye, as an upper-middle-income country, is also significantly affected by air pollution, especially in urban and industrialized areas.

Álvaro Huerta Ojeda conceived and designed the experiments, performed the experiments, analyzed the data, prepared figures and/or tables, authored or reviewed drafts of the article, and approved the final draft. Sergio Galdames Maliqueo conceived and designed the experiments, performed the experiments, authored or reviewed drafts of the article, and approved the final draft.