1 INTRODUCTION Problematic articles are scholarly publications containing methodological flaws, data irregularities, or ethical violations, regardless of whether these issues have been formally identified by the scientific community. The presence of such articles can mislead researchers, policymakers, and the public (Candal-Pedreira et al., 2022; Larsson, 1995). When concerns identified after publication are deemed sufficiently serious, problematic articles may ultimately be retracted.