Wubing Xu

1 Introduction Biodiversity is changing at rates unprecedented in human history, along with the functions and services biodiversity provides (Díaz 2019; Reid et al. 2019; Li and Tsigaris 2024). However, in the last decades, many of the generalities about biodiversity change come from terrestrial systems, where large scale datasets have been synthesised to show widespread losses, typically linked to land-use changes, one of the major drivers of biodiversity loss (Loh et al. 2005; Newbold et al.

1 INTRODUCTION Biodiversity–ecosystem functioning (BEF) relationship is essential for sustaining ecosystem functions to support human livelihood (Bongers et al., 2021; Durán et al., 2019; Huang et al., 2018; Isbell et al., 2015). Large-scale BEF research is crucial for understanding diverse ecosystems, revealing regional-scale relationships between biodiversity and productivity, and optimizing the predictions of future climate change impacts.

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