Xiaozhou Luo

Abstract Accurate prediction of enzyme kinetic parameters is crucial for enzyme exploration and modification. Existing models face the problem of either low accuracy or poor generalization ability due to overfitting.

Heterologous biosynthesis of natural products frequently encounters great challenges, including enzyme promiscuity and metabolic burden, particularly in those with long biosynthetic pathways (Cheah et al., 2023; Chen et al., 2019; Sun et al., 2022). The promiscuity in enzyme activity often leads to the generation of by-products and seriously decreases the efficiency of the intricate biosynthetic routes (Brooks et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2024; Qiu et al., 2022).

Introduction There are over 100,000 substances in nature capable of producing colours, with the majority relying on chemical colours displayed by pigments, excluding a portion that exhibits bioluminescence and structural colours. As secondary metabolites, pigments are a broad class of coloured compounds that serve as a significant source of a vast array of colours, endowing the world with their vibrant splendour.