Kabir Umar

Abstract Postbiotics, defined as preparations of inanimate microorganisms and their components that confer health benefits, are emerging as stable and safe alternatives to probiotics. This review summarizes recent advances in the biochemical composition, mechanisms of action, and applications of postbiotics and paraprobiotics in human and animal nutrition.

Submitted: 06 November 2025 You are already at the latest version Subscription Notify me about updates to this article or when a peer-reviewed version is published. This version is not peer-reviewed. Submitted: 06 November 2025 You are already at the latest version Dark energy and dark matter are described as different manifestations of vacuum energy in the framework of Extra Dimensional Symmetry (EDS).

In the evolving story of Nigeria's democratic governance, Kaduna State today stands as an illuminating example of what visionary leadership can achieve when purpose is wedded to compassion, and when the measure of progress is not counted merely in roads built or bridges commissioned, but in lives uplifted. In just over two years in office, Senator Uba Sani, the Governor of Kaduna State, has redefined the architecture of governance in ways that go beyond the ordinary calculus of politics.