1 Introduction An estimated 50%–70% of human conceptions do not survive to birth (Boklage 1990), and detected male fetal losses outnumber female losses by 9%–20% (Byrne and Warburton 1987; Ammon Avalos et al. 2012; Catalano et al. 2005a). Theory attributes this male-biased fetal loss in utero to mechanisms conserved by natural selection to spontaneously terminate gestations least likely to yield grandchildren (Wells 2000; Stearns 1987; Forbes 1997).