James E. Herbert-Read

ReviewOnline nowOpen access 1Conservation Science Group, Department of Zoology, Cambridge University, The David Attenborough Building, Cambridge, CB2 3QZ, UK 2BirdLife International, David Attenborough Building, Cambridge, CB2 3QZ 3National Trust, Heelis, Swindon, SN2 2NA, UK 4The Wildlife Trusts, The Kiln, Newark, NG24 1WT, UK 5Natural England, Eastbrook, Cambridge, CB2 8DR, UK 6Environment Agency, Horizon House, Bristol, BS1 5AH, UK 7Darwin-Hamied Centre, Christ’s College, Cambridge, CB2...

Keywords intelligence misinformation tactics Deceptive strategies in the animal kingdom Animals frequently rely on transmitting signals to one another, defined as acts or structures that convey information to, and elicit responses in, a receiver [1,2]. While many signals are reliable and honest [2], intentionally sending wrong or modified signals offers the opportunity for a signaller to deceive a receiver [3].

1 Introduction Many animals rely on their visual systems to detect information about their predators, prey or conspecifics. Although animal eyes can vary in both anatomy and complexity, some functions are common across visual systems, highlighting their ecological importance for an animal's survival and reproductive success (Land and Nilsson 2012).